The Ottoman Empire, established in the 13th century by a Turkish Gazi named Osman, was a vast and influential transcontinental state that spanned three continents, including Asia, Europe, and Africa. The empire was known for its rich history and powerful military. After acquiring the power of “Khilafat” the Empire was acting as a spiritual guide to the Muslims all over the world. For being an undisputed authority of Muslims, the Empire faced serious threats from the European Powers who saw Turkey as the “Sick Man of Europe ''. They exploited all the chances they got to destroy this Muslim Caliphate.
The decline of this most-ruled Islamic Empire was a gradual process which can be traced back to the 17th century. Even though the final blow to this Empire was in 1924, the beginning of its decline was a complex and multifaceted process that unfolded over several centuries. The rise of nationalism, economic challenges, military defeats, corruption, administrative inefficiency, territorial losses, financial strain and the entrance to World War I were the main factors of the Empire’s decline.
Some historians also point out that the Ottoman naval defeat at Lepanto in 1571 and the failure of the second siege of Vienna in 1683 as the beginning of the “decline” of the Ottoman Empire. During the previous era, the Ottoman Empire was very famous with its army and naval power which often got victory in the war among others. Some experts say that the population pressure, fiscal crisis, and Europe’s new military technology contributed significantly to the Ottoman Empire’s decline by the early seventeenth century.
Some historians have identified the reign of Suleyman Kanuni’s son Selim II (1566-1574), as the beginning of the long process of decline. The decline of the empire did not happen overnight. The ruthless attacks and military challenges from Iran and the military defeats in Europe caused loss of confidence in Sultans. Many new grand viziers started adopting European culture and completely imitating them. The army started to lack the desire to go to war.
REFORM PERIOD
Sultan Selim III introduced the Nizam-i Cedid, by which he organized new army units which were trained in accordance with European military techniques. The first modern military hospital was also completed a year later and, in 1795, the first military engineering school was established. Sultan Abdülmecid (1839–1861) introduced Tanzimat Reforms by which he tried to modernize the empire's infrastructure. The Tanzimat period also witnessed a significant transformation in the Ottoman educational system. Despite their best efforts to focus on reform, the men of the Tanzimat faced serious challenges both from internal rebellions and foreign aggression that ultimately undermined their efforts and resulted in the disintegration of the empire.
The modernizing process of the Empire was one of the main factors that caused discontent among various sects of people and paved the way to European interventions in the administrative system of the Empire. The Nizam-i Cedid and Tanzimat reforms were intended to make the Empire “modernized”. But, many activities and royal edicts came out that time were the reason behind the increasing discontent among the Empires population. These reforms produced many anti-government organizations and secret societies like the Young Ottomans. They started protesting against Sultans and authorities. Later they were supported by the European Powers who were waiting for such a chance to make disputes in the Empire and gradually lead to its decline.
RISE OF NATIONALISM
The rise of nationalism was a key factor in the empire’s gradual decline. The Balkan areas were the first territories in the empire where the people started rebellion wanting separate states. Starting with Serbia in 1804 and Greece in 1821, nationalist revolutions erupted among the Christian subjects of the empire. In each case, the nationalists were supported by one or more European imperial powers that intended to use the eruption of anti government uprisings as a justification to intervene and undermine Ottoman power and authority in the Balkans.
European Powers -especially Russia- were intervening in Ottoman politics claiming their right over its Christian population. Considering themselves the heirs of Byzantium and the Eastern Orthodox heritage, the Russians had long desired the Ottoman capital of Constantinople, both for its cultural value and for its strategic importance as a warm-water port offering access to the Mediterranean. Russian Tsars were always seeking chances to make chaos in between the Empire's Christian population and then to make an entry as the problem solver.
Britain was acting friendly towards the Ottoman Empire in earlier times. They were spreading the ideology of 'Khilafath' and accepted the Caliphate of Ottomans and their right over the Muslims all over the world. It was mainly for their interest in India. Britain foresaw that by supporting the Ottomans they can gain the support of Muslims in India. By this propaganda, Britain had tried to silence Muslims against their activities in India. But, later this approach of Britain started to change. By the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, Britain’s attitude towards Ottomans completely changed.
CONSTITUTIONAL ERA
The westernized subjects of the empire began to desire for a constitution and parliament. Thus, Abdülhamid II opened a parliament and prepared a constitution. But that did not work well. Even after declaring the constitution, the Ottomans had to face Russia in the war. Nothing changed at all. The war ended with the Treaty of Berlin. The Congress of Berlin, which began in June1878 as an aftermath of the Russo-Turkish war, was a turning point in the history of the Ottoman Empire. When the congress ended, the Ottoman Empire was no longer a political and military power in the Balkans. The Ottomans lost eight percent of their territory and four and a half million of their population. Thus Ottomans became more shrunk.
After the war, Abdülhamid II shut the curtains of the parliament and constitution. From there on, the real power transferred from the grand vizier to the Sultan. Thus, Abdülhamid proudly managed the throne for thirty three years facing various plots of the western powers. Aside from the military disasters and territorial losses that the empire suffered, the reign of Abdülhamid II proved to be a period of significant social, economic, and cultural transformation.
Abdülhamid II may have been a modernizer, but one who believed strongly in preserving the Islamic identity of the Ottoman state. With the loss of its European provinces, the number of Christian subjects of the sultan decreased and Muslims began to emerge as the empire’s majority population. Abdülhamid II understood the new mood among his Muslim subjects and countered European imperial designs by appealing to Pan-Islamism, or the unity of all Muslims, under his leadership as the caliph, or the religious and spiritual leader of the Islamic world.
YOUNG TURKS SEIZE POWER
Despite Abdülhamid II’s best efforts to preserve the territorial integrity of the empire and to modernize the Ottoman society, the government failed to neutralize the opposition of the young, educated, and secular minded elements in the society. In 1889, small groups of patriotic students, civil servants, and army officers had organized secret societies. Princes of the royal family, government officials, teachers, artists, and army officers educated and trained in modern schools and military academies, had concluded that the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the establishment of a new government based on a parliament were the only means through which the Ottoman Empire could be saved from further disintegration. Young Turks organized themselves as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). In 1908, CUP revolted and demanded the restoration of the 1876 constitution. On 23 July, Abdülhamid restored constitutional rule and ordered parliamentary elections throughout the empire. The Young Turks had convinced themselves that the restoration of the parliamentary system of government would secure the support of European powers for the preservation of the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. They were mistaken. Shortly after the victory of the revolution, the Austro-Hungarian Empire formally annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, while Greece seized the island of Crete, and Bulgaria unified with Eastern Rumelia, which had remained an autonomous province under the nominal rule of the Ottoman sultan. Later, the parliament deposed Abdülhamid in April 1909 and paved the way to the CUP rule. But, they could not manage the administration as Abdülhamid did. The weakness of the government was demonstrated by its failure to respond effectively to the unrest in Albania, and the Italian invasion of Tripoli and Benghazi in Libya. Ottomans began to lose more lands under CUP rule.
DEFEAT IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The decision to enter the war on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire brought the Ottoman state into open military confrontation with France, Russia, and Great Britain. The final collapse of the Ottoman Empire came at the end of World War I. Defeat in the war was accompanied by the occupation of the Western powers to the Ottoman Empire territory. Then, after a nationalist struggle that ended the occupation, and also a brief civil war between nationalist and the Ottoman dynasty, the Turkish Republic was proclaimed by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Additionally, the victory of Allies in World War I marked the end of the Ottoman Empire and the birth of a Turkish nation.
REPUBLIC OF TURKEY
On 29 October 1923 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was declared president of the Turkish Republic, a state whose legitimacy was based on popular sovereignty within finite, internationally-recognized frontiers. Turkish republicans had already demoted the Ottoman Sultan – on 1 November 1922 – so that he managed only his religious role as caliph.
On 3 March 1924 Turkish Republic abolished the office of Caliphate, ending a centuries old Islamic leadership which started after the demise of Prophet Muhammad. Thus, the government expelled the last Muslim Caliph Abdulmecid II to France. Between the 15th and the 20th of October 1927 Mustafa Kemal set out in a lengthy address to parliament – so famous that it is known in Turkish simply as ‘The Speech’ – the reasons his generation had rejected the nation’s stale and unprofitable Ottoman past.
Mustafa Kamal’s first years in power were witnessing a series of “reforms”, aimed to oblige the Turkish people to abandon their imperial heritage, escape the tyranny of clerics, and embrace the modern world. He abandoned or banned various Muslim identities. Masjids, Maktabs, Tekkes and all other Muslim institutions were shut down. Muslim Women were prohibited from wearing hijab. The Azans were banned. Thus the long lasting Islamic heritage of the Ottoman Empire disappeared and the heartland of Islamic Caliphate witnessed a severe decline. Abandoning all minor elements of the previous Islamic administration, Turkey became “secular”.