ARMENIAN REVOLUTIONARIES
The Armenian revolutionary organizations followed two kinds of terrorism: Individual assassinations (against Ottoman officials, for example); and mass terrorism, namely the fire of Salonika in 1890 and the failed attempt to ravage İstanbul in August 1896, the hostage taking at the Ottoman Bank being the only implemented part of a more general plan. The overuse of terrorism and rebellion by them was to provoke a foreign intervention.[6]
The ARF planned events that would garner attention, particularly in Istanbul. In 1892, Ovannes Yusufyan (Melik) moved from Trabzon to Istanbul and established a solid underground base for the ARF in the capital.[7] Even while in its nascent phase, the ARF stated as early as 1891 that its purpose was to call the Armenian people to arms against their Turkish rulers. The first leg of this planned terror campaign aimed to assassinate Armenians in the service of the Ottoman state. ARF decided that the punishment for Armenians who refused to donate to the organization would be death.[8]
The ARF’s raid on the Imperial Ottoman Bank is one of the first instances of the use of terrorism for political ends in modern history.[9] The methods of the ARF were in line with the desire of the Great Powers to be given a cause to intervene in the domestic affairs of the Ottoman Empire through the spilling of innocent blood. According to Armenian statesman Borian, “with the appearance of the Dashnaks [ARF] in the Caucasus, terrorism and mutual slaughter between communities became the order of the day.”
At the time of the First World War Armenian revolutionaries fought against Ottomans. As the Dashnaks thought that Armenian independence could only be guaranteed with the assistance of the Russians, the Dashnaks began to display a favorable attitude towards Russia. ARF suspected that in the case of a victory for the Central Powers, they would not be granted autonomy and for this reason they aligned themselves with the Allied Powers.[10]
Their role in the decline of the caliphate can be seen from their activities. They were willing to partition the empire. One of their worst terrorist activities was against Sultan Abdülhamid by attempting to kill him by a car bomb.[11] Later, they joined hands together with CUP. The ARF was responsible for a number of terrorist attacks against Ottoman officials, and they also played a role in the Armenian Genocide of 1915. The ARF's activities contributed to the instability of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern provinces, and they made it more difficult for the empire to maintain control of the region.
ARAB SECRET SOCIETIES
Like many Balkan provinces, Arabs are also influenced by nationalism. Thus they started acting secretly to get independence from Ottomans. Al-Fatat was one of such organizations founded in 1911 by a small group of Arabs from Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine in the course of their higher studies in Paris. Initially they named it as Jamʿiyyat al-Natiqin bi al-Dhad (literally, the "society of those who speak the letter Dad," i.e., Arabic), which was later changed to al-Jamiʿa alArabiyya al-Fatat (The Young Arab Society). The original aim of al-Fatat was the administrative independence of the Arab lands from Ottoman rule. This meant that the Arab and Turkish nationalities should remain united within the Ottoman framework, but later they wanted the complete independence and unity of Arab lands.
In 1915, al-Fatat[12] and the Iraqi-dominated al-Ahd drew up the Damascus protocol, which expressed the Arab nationalists' readiness to join the British war effort against the Ottoman state if Britain pledged to support complete Arab independence and unity. Differences over their leaders’ controversial dealings with the Zionists and the French, created serious confusions within the organization.
The Special Organization, was a secretive and paramilitary organization established during World War I in the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in 1911 by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). The organization played a crucial role in carrying out the Armenian Genocide and other atrocities during the First World War. This genocide killed hundreds of thousands of Armenians and contributed to the destabilization of the Ottoman Empire.
The primary purpose of the Special Organization was to carry out acts of violence, including mass deportations, forced labor, and massacres, particularly against the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire. Its activities were intertwined with broader factors contributing to the empire's decline, including ethnic and religious tensions, nationalism, and the complex geopolitics of the time. The Special Organization's activities remain a dark and controversial chapter in the history of the Ottoman Empire and have been a subject of significant historical research and debate, particularly in the context of the Armenian Genocide.
JEWISH SECRET SOCIETIES
Zionism was part of a larger wave of nationalist movements that arose in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Ottoman Empire was a diversified and multi-ethnic state, and the growth of nationalism among many ethnic and religious groups, including Zionists, contributed to internal tensions and wars. The Ottoman government had to deal with the rise of nationalist aspirations and ethnic tensions.
Ottomanism, the ideal of political equality for all the Ottoman Empire's different subjects under a single civic loyalty, coexisted in the latter decades of the empire's existence with a variety of other ideologies. Zionism was one of these ideologies that appeared to be another national identity threatening the Empire from inside and disturbing the Ottomanist goal of uniting the empire's various ethnic and religious groupings. Zionism, on the other hand, was more than a local identity; it was a developing international movement.
As Jewish immigrants settled in Palestine, they often purchased land from local Arab landowners. This created land disputes and sometimes led to tensions and conflicts between Jewish immigrants and the local Arab population. The Ottoman authorities had difficulty managing these land-related issues and the resulting unrest.
By the late nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was already in decline due to a variety of circumstances such as military setbacks, economic difficulties, and political instability. European countries, particularly Britain, played a vital role in molding the empire's fate. In 1917, the British government released the Balfour Declaration, which advocated for the formation of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine. This proclamation complicated matters further by promising land to Zionists in an area where there were previously established communities and which was under Ottoman control.
During the First World War, the British and their allies launched the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, which eventually led to the British occupation of Palestine in 1917 and the end of Ottoman rule in the region. This occupation set the stage for the establishment of the British Mandate for Palestine.
One of the numerous reasons that contributed to the Ottoman Empire's demise was Zionism. Its impact on the empire was linked to the larger framework of nationalist movements, ethnic tensions, external pressure, and the empire's own internal weakness. Zionist leaders were supported by the Freemasons also. For having a Jewish majority in their lodges, Jewish freemasons always prioritized their goals.
In the 1911 parliamentary Zionism debate, Hasan Şükrü, the deputy of Syria described the inhabitants of a Zionist settlement, claiming that they played their own anthem at their special occasions, and, in place of the Ottoman flag, they fly the Zion Flag. The Ottoman flag, a symbol of unity under one ruler and one system, was thus challenged by a new banner representing a nationalist movement.[13]
The Ottoman Empire was the only administration which welcomed the Jews while the whole world rejected them. Ottoman Sultans have helped to the Jewish settlement in Ottoman lands. But, the Jewish leaders were forgetting all these while they supported western powers against Ottomans. They got high positions in the administrative sector. While freemasonry supported the CUP, Jews were also included in the Ottoman parliament. The Zionist leaders in the parliament induced the assembly to act according to their will of a Jewish land. Abdülhamid II was deposed by a committee of four deputies, all of them were freemasons, among them ʿEmanüʾel Karasu was a Zionist leader.
Sabbateanism was another Jewish movement that emerged in the 17th century around the Jewish rabbi Shabtai Zevi, who claimed to be the Messiah, and he attracted a large following among Jews throughout the Ottoman Empire. Sabbateanism had a significant impact on Jewish thought and culture. The Sabbateans challenged traditional Jewish beliefs and practices, and they promoted a new form of Judaism that was more mystical and less legalistic. The Sabbateans believed that the Messiah would overthrow the Ottoman Empire and establish a new world order based on Jewish law. This belief was seen as a threat to the Ottoman state, which was based on Islamic law and the authority of the sultan. Jews had many other movements like Kabbalism and Sabbateanism.
The Donmeh are a secretive religious sect that emerged in the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. The Donmeh are descended from Jews who converted to Islam under pressure. However, the Donmeh continued to practice Judaism in secret. In the ‘Payitaht Abdülhamid’ series, the Donmeh are portrayed as a powerful and influential secret society that is working to overthrow the Ottoman Empire. The Donmeh were active in many aspects of Ottoman society, including government, business, and the arts. They were also involved in a number of secret societies, including the Young Turks and the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).
Some historians believe that the Donmeh played a significant role in the decline of the Ottoman Empire. They argue that the Donmeh were motivated by a desire to undermine the Ottoman state and to establish a new order based on their own religious beliefs. Other historians argue that the Donmeh were not as influential as some have claimed. They point out that the Donmeh were a relatively small group, and that they were not always united in their goals.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
The Theosophical Society is mentioned several times in the Turkish historical drama television series “Payitaht: Abdülhamid”. In the series, the Theosophical Society is portrayed as a secret organization that is working to overthrow the Ottoman Empire. The Theosophists are shown to be in contact with foreign powers, and they are also shown to be infiltrating the Ottoman government and military. The Theosophists are also shown to be using their influence to promote ideas that are rebellious to the Ottoman state. For example, they are shown to be promoting nationalism and self-determination among the empire's non-Turkish peoples.
In one episode, a Theosophical agent is shown infiltrating the Ottoman government and stealing important documents. In another episode, a group of Theosophists is shown meeting with foreign diplomats to discuss plans to overthrow the Ottoman sultan. In another episode, a Theosophical agent is shown spreading propaganda among the empire's non-Turkish peoples, encouraging them to rebel against the Ottoman government.
The series' portrayal of the Theosophical Society is likely based on the fact that the organization was indeed seen as a threat by the Ottoman government. The Theosophists were active in the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Theosophists were also known for their close ties to the British Empire. This made them even more suspicious of the Ottoman government, which was increasingly concerned about British imperialism in the Middle East.
The Theosophical Society, founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott, and William Quan Judge in 1875, was primarily a spiritual and philosophical organization rather than a political one. The Society's teachings were based on a syncretic mix of Eastern and Western religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The Theosophists believed in the existence of a universal brotherhood of humanity, and they promoted the idea of universal love and tolerance.
The Theosophical Society established a branch in the Ottoman Empire in 1879. The Society's teachings influenced some Ottoman intellectuals, who were attracted to its religious ideas and its emphasis on universal brotherhood. However, the Theosophical Society also faced opposition from some Ottoman religious leaders, who saw it as a threat to Islam.
The role of the Theosophical Society in the decline of the Ottoman Empire is a complex one. The Society did not directly contribute to the empire's collapse, but it did play a role in spreading ideas that challenged traditional Ottoman values and beliefs. The Society's teachings also helped to spread ideas of nationalism and self-determination, which contributed to the rise of nationalist movements in the empire's non-Turkish provinces.
THE BEKTASHI ORDER
The Bektashis are a mystical Shia Sufi order that was well popular in the Ottoman Period. The order's mystical teachings and its emphasis on tolerance and pluralism appealed to many Ottoman intellectuals who were critical of the traditional Ottoman order. The Bektashis were also involved in a number of rebellions against the Ottoman government.
The Bektashis were a complex and multifaceted order, and their role in the decline of the Ottoman Empire is still being debated by historians. However, there is no doubt that the Bektashis were a significant force in Ottoman society, and that their teachings and practices had a profound impact on the empire's development.
The Bektashis had a strong following among the Janissaries, the elite military corps of the Ottoman Empire. The Janissaries were a major force in Ottoman politics, and their support for the Bektashis helped to spread the order's teachings throughout the empire. The Bektashis were involved in a number of rebellions against the Ottoman government, including the Celali Revolts (1595-1610)[14], the Janissary Revolt (1826)[15], and the Young Turk Revolution (1908).
The Bektashis' involvement in various rebellions helped to weaken the Ottoman state and contributed to its eventual collapse. The Bektashis also challenged the traditional Islamic orthodoxy that was promoted by the Ottoman state. The Bektashis' emphasis on tolerance and pluralism appealed to many Ottoman intellectuals who were critical of the Ottoman government's authoritarian rule.
CONCLUSION
The role of secret societies in the decline of the Ottoman Empire is a complex and multifaceted aspect of its history. These underground organizations played a significant role in worsening the empire's problems during its decline. Secret societies, such as freemasonry, Young ottomans, Young Turks, CUP, ARF, IMRO, Theosophical society, and Zionism appeared in the Ottoman lands. These groups served as vehicles for resistance against central authority and as platforms for promoting specific religious and nationalist agendas.
The presence of the secret societies in the empire was one of the major factors in the decline of the empire. There were several secret societies including Turkish and non-Turkish. Nationalism and other modern ideologies were the main motives of the secret societies. Some secret societies were acting violently by creating revolutions and killing officials. These all led to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire gradually. These secret societies had different characteristics. The impact of the secret societies in the Ottoman Empire in its last decades was very severe.
[6] Gauin, Maxime. From Terrorism to Insurgencies: The Armenian Revolutionary Nationalists Against the Ottoman State, 1912-1915
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[6] Gauin, Maxime. From Terrorism to Insurgencies: The Armenian Revolutionary Nationalists Against the Ottoman State, 1912-1915
[7] Hergül ,Olga Bykova. The Foundation of The Armenian Revolutionary Federation And Its Activities In The Ottoman Empire In View of Russian Archival Sources (1890-1915)
[8] Ibid. p.60
[9] Ibid. p.59
[10] Hergül ,Olga Bykova. The Foundation of The Armenian Revolutionary Federation And Its Activities In The Ottoman Empire In View of Russian Archival Sources (1890-1915) p.68
[11] This is considered to be the first car bomb attack in the world.
[12] By enlisting Amir Faisal (Faisal I ibn Hussein) in 1915, al-Fatat put itself in direct contact with the family of Sharif Husayn ibn Ali
[13] Talbot, Michael.“Jews, Be Ottomans!” Zionism, Ottomanism, and Ottomanisation in the Hebrew-Language Press, 1890-1914
[14] The Bektashis were involved in a series of rebellions against the Ottoman government known as the Celali Revolts. The revolts were led by Celali beys, who were provincial governors who had been appointed by the Ottoman government. The Celali beys were often disgruntled with the Ottoman government, and they used the Bektashis as a source of support.
[15] The Bektashis were also involved in the Janissary Revolt of 1826. The Janissaries were a powerful military corps that had become increasingly corrupt and inefficient. Sultan Mahmud II decided to abolish the Janissary corps, and he used the Bektashis as a tool to achieve his goal.
- Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. Basic Books.(2005).
- Ağaoğlu, Yavuz Selim, Freemasonry and Secular Spirituality in the Ottoman Grand East
- Stebbins, Jeffrey W, Bell And Banner: Armenian Revolutionaries At The End Of The Ottoman Empire
- Campos, Michelle, Freemasonry in Ottoman Palestine
- Ti̇ryaki̇, Rüştü Murat, Freemasonry In The Ottoman Lands: A Transnational History
- Özkan, G. Kemalist policies on secret societies in Turkey. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies (2012).
- Hergül, Olga Bykova, The Foundation Of The Armenian Revolutionary Federation And Its Activities In The Ottoman Empire In View Of Russian Archival Sources (1890-1915)
- Talbot, Michael.“Jews, Be Ottomans!” Zionism, Ottomanism, and Ottomanisation in the Hebrew-Language Press, 1890-1914
- Arslan, Ozan. Ozen, Cinar. The Rebirth of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress in Macedonia through the Italian Freemasonry. Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino
- Gauin, Maxime. From Terrorism to Insurgencies: The Armenian Revolutionary Nationalists Against the Ottoman State, 1912-1915
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